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Europe

Turkey
Last reviewed: 27 January 2009

Country information

TURKEY TODAY

Country Facts

Area: Approx 780,000 sq km (300,000 sq miles)
Population: 71.9m (July 2008 est)
Capital city: Ankara
People: Majority Turks. Minorities recognised under the Turkish Constitution: Jews, Armenians and Greeks. Other ethnic peoples include Kurds, Circassians and Bosnians.
Language: Turkish (official), Kurdish
Religion: Muslim
Currency: New Turkish Lira (YTL)
Major political parties: AKP (Justice and Development Party), CHP (Republican People's Party), MHP (Nationalist Action Party), DTP (Democratic Society Party), DSP (Democratic Left Party), BBP (Great Union Party), ODP (Freedom and Solidarity Party) and DP (Democrat Party).
Government: Parliamentary republic
Head of State: President Abdullah Gul
Prime Minister: Recep Tayyip Erdogan (AKP)
Foreign Minister: Ali Babacan (AKP)
Membership of international groupings/organisations: UN, NATO, the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), an Associate Member of the Western European Union, and a candidate for accession to the European Union (negotiations started on 3 October 2005).

ECONOMY

GDP:US$378.4 billion in 2006 (US$361.5 billion in 2005)
GDP per head: US$5,202 in 2006 (US$ 5,016 in 2005)
Annual Growth: 7.4% in 2005 (8.9% in 2004)
Inflation: Year-on-year CPI as of March 2006: 8.16%
Major Industries: Automotive, textiles, iron & steel, clothing, electrical machinery
Major trading partners: Germany, Italy, France, UK
Exchange rate: 2.27 New Turkish Lira - 1 Pound Sterling (as of 27 January 2009)

Following a three-year $10 billion stand-by agreement with the IMF which ended in May 2008, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) has recently also decided to lend to Turkey.

The AKP has maintained tight fiscal policies and pushed through unpopular structural reforms. Future challenges to the reform process include; correcting the current account deficit, addressing above-target inflation and public debt levels, and decreasing the large informal economy.

HISTORY

Recent History

In 1923, following the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938) founded the Republic of Turkey and became Turkey's first President. His aim was to transform Turkey into a modern, secular state which could compare with Western European nations in terms of military and economic strength. Today, Turkey is a member of almost every Western European international organisation, joining the Council of Europe in 1949;NATO in 1952; and achieving full candidate status for European Union membership in 1999.

The Turkish military regards itself as the main guardian of the principles of Atatürk's legacy, even to the point of intervening directly to restore political stability in 1960, 1971 and most recently in 1980. In September 1980 the Turkish military took power following a breakdown of law and order under a succession of weak and divided coalition governments. General Evren, Chief of the General Staff, became Head of State and President of the National Security Council (NSC)- an advisory body consisting of the President, Prime Minister, other key ministers and senior members of the military. Under martial law, they clamped down on civil liberties in order to maintain stability and developed a timetable for the restoration of an elected government. In 1982 a new Constitution was adopted. Turgut Özal replaced Evren as President in 1989 modernising the Turkish economy and raising Turkey's international standing.

In May 1993 Prime Minister Süleyman Demirel was elected President. Mrs Tansu Çiller, previously Economics Minister, was elected to replace Demirel as Chairman of the True Path Party (DYP) in June 1993 and thus became Turkey's first female Prime Minister.

In June 1996 Necmettin Erbakan became Prime Minister when his Refah party formed a coalition with the DYP. However, Refah's ideology led to friction with the NSC who feared that the new government might take steps to undermine Turkey's secular state and western orientation. Largely as a result of sustained pressure from the NSC Erbakan resigned. Bulent Ecevit’s Democratic Left Party (DSP) benefited most from the political upheaval that followed, forming coalitions first with the Motherland Party (ANAP) alone, then with both the ANAP and DYP.

The general and local elections in Turkey of April 1999 brought to power a coalition of the DSP, ANAP and Devlet Bahceli's Nationalist Action Party (MHP), with Bulent Ecevit remaining as Prime Minister. Ahmet Necdet Sezer, former Head of Turkey's Constitutional Court, was elected President of Turkey in May 2000.

The government began a programme of constitutional and economic reforms in its first year in office, particularly those needed to take forward Turkey's EU candidacy. Concerns about the government's ability to implement these reforms, in addition to a corruption scandal, led to a period of economic crisis in February 2001.

The Prime Minister responded by appointing Kemal Dervis, a former World Bank vice president, as Economy Minister. Turkey secured new loans from the IMF and the World Bank in 2001 and 2002 to fund a series of economic and structural reforms as well as restoring macroeconomic stability and providing budgetary support.

However, signs of tension within the coalition continued and Ecevit's failure to resign on health grounds in May 2002 led to the resignations of more than sixty DSP deputies and several Ministers, including the Deputy Prime Minister and the Foreign Minister.

These resignations combined with growing pressure from both opposition parties and DSP's coalition partners, led to the Turkish Parliament's decision to hold early elections on 3 November 2002. In the elections, only the socially conservative Justice and Development Party (AKP) and the centre-left Republican People's Party (CHP) crossed the 10% threshold needed to return MPs to parliament.

Despite the AKP victory their chairman, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, could not take office as Prime Minister because of a conviction for ‘inciting religious hatred’ for remarks made in a speech in 1998, which banned him from standing for election to Parliament. As a result his deputy, Abdullah Gul, became PM instead. However in March 2003, Parliament passed a constitutional amendment that annulled his ban enabling him to be elected to Parliament and take over as Prime Minister, with Gul as Foreign Minister.

Key issues that have dominated the AKP's political agenda since their 2002 election include: Iraq, EU accession, Cyprus, the economy and Kurdish separatists. In November 2003, the Turkish government also had to deal with four major terrorist attacks in Istanbul which targeted two synagogues, the British Consulate-General and the HSBC bank.

BBC News Country Timeline: Turkey

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Relations with Neighbours

Cyprus

Following Cyprus' independence in 1960, tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots increased. The Turkish Cypriot minority retreated into small enclaves, under UN protection from 1964, after outbreaks of serious intercommunal fighting. In July 1974 Turkish troops landed in northern Cyprus following a coup on the island by extremists against the elected President, which was backed by the military junta then in power in Greece. The island has been effectively partitioned ever since and approximately 36% of the territory of the Republic is not under the effective control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus. A large Turkish military presence also remains in the north of the island.

Since 1974 there was a series of unsuccessful UN-sponsored talks aimed at achieving a just, lasting and comprehensive settlement, including the UN’s 2004 ‘Annan Plan’ for which the Turkish Cypriots voted in favour, but the Greek Cypriots voted against. As a result, Cyprus joined the EU in May 2004 as a divided island with the EU acquis suspended in the north.

On 3 September 2008 a new negotiation process began between the leaders of the two communities.

You can find a more detailed account of developments in Cyprus on the Cyprus Country Profile.

Greece

Relations between the Ottoman Empire and Greece were always troubled and in 1830 after a prolonged and violent struggle, Greece gained independence from the Ottomans. Following that however, bilateral relations remained cordial until the mid-1950s when the issue of the future of Cyprus became an international one. In addition to continuing differences over Cyprus, disputes between Turkey and Greece continued over a number of sovereignty issues in the Aegean.

Following earthquakes in Greece and Turkey in 1999 relations between the two countries have greatly improved and both are pursuing a policy of rapprochement that has led to the signing of numerous bilateral agreements for greater co-operation as well as military confidence-building measures. The better relationship was a major factor in enabling EU member states to award candidate status to Turkey at the Helsinki European Council in December 1999 putting Turkey's relationship with the EU and Greece on a new footing.

National elections were held in Greece on 17 September 2007, with centre right ruling New Democracy party being re-elected with a wafer thin majority. Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis visited Turkey in January 2008 in response to an invitation by his Turkish counterpart Recep Tayyip Erdogan. This was the first official visit by a Greek Prime Minister to Turkey in 50 years. The Greek Prime Minister reiterated Greece's support for Turkey's European prospects.

You can find a more detailed account of developments in Greece on the Greece Country Profile.

Armenia

Turkey and Armenia have a troubled history. Between 1915 and 1916 an estimated 1.5 million ethnic Armenian citizens of the Ottoman Empire were killed. Many were massacred; others were victims of civil strife, starvation and disease which ravaged the whole population of Eastern Anatolia, including other minorities and Ottoman Turks during the First World War.

Armenia received worldwide diplomatic recognition in 1991, but diplomatic relations between Turkey and Armenia were never established. In 1993 Turkey closed its border with Armenia in response to the Nagorno Karabakh war and Armenia's occupation of Nagorno Karabakh and seven other 'occupied territories' of Azerbaijan.

Despite the troubled bilateral relationship, Turkey has provided a limited amount of humanitarian assistance to Armenia in the past, and the two countries work together in the Black Sea Economic Co-operation Organisation. Turkey has recently proposed a regional co-operation group to include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia and themselves.

More recently, significant steps were made in Turkish-Armenian diplomatic relations when President Gul became the first Turkish President to visit Armenia by accepting an invitation to attend a World Cup qualifying football match in Yerevan. Both sides are openly determined to normalise bilateral relations and progress has continued with a trilateral meeting (including Azerbaijan) of Foreign Ministers.    

You can find a more detailed account of Armenia on the Armenia Country Profile.

Iraq

Turkey is keen to increase its diplomatic ties with Iraq. The main issue between the countries is how the two governments and the Kurdish regional authorites in northern Iraq can work together to find a resolution to PKK terrorists presence in the region. Conflicts between the Turkish military and the PKK continue on the Turkey-Iraq border.

You can find a more detailed account of Iraq on the Iraq Country Profile

Relations with the European Union (EU)

Turkey was the second country to sign a European association agreement in 1963. This provided for the eventual establishment of a European Community-Turkey Customs union, which finally came into effect on 1 January 1996, and paved the way for Turkey's eventual European Community accession. Turkey formally applied for membership in 1987. The European Commission recommended against that application in 1989 because of the need for further political and economic reform in Turkey and the need for the existing Community to focus its energy on achieving the 1992 deadline for the completion of the Single Market. Nonetheless, the Commission confirmed Turkey's eligibility for membership although its political and economic instability, together with the Greek/Turkish disputes, made talk of EU membership unrealistic during most of the 1990s. It was not until 1999 that the European Council formally accepted Turkey as a candidate.

The opening of negotiations was possible because Turkey has made the necessary legislative and constitutional amendments to meet the Copenhagen political criteria (a set of basic standards established at the 2002 European Council covering democracy, human rights and respect for minorities) Based on the 2004 European Commissions report on Turkey's progress, it was agreed at the December 2004 European Council that accession negotiations with Turkey would be opened on 3 October 2005.

EU negotiations are based on the accession criteria, or acquis, which is broken down into a series of both political and technical policy areas, known as ‘chapters’. Candidate countries, in this case Turkey, must meet the necessary standards specified by the European Commission within each chapter in order to be considered for full membership to the EU. The European Commission publish an annual progress report, which outlines areas of the acquis where reform is needed.

More information on the accession process can be found on the European Commission website.

Turkey's Accession Partnership with the EU was agreed on 12 December and adopted on 23 December 2005. It sets out priorities for Turkey on meeting the Copenhagen criteria and the assistance that the EU will provide. The Accession Partnership also calls on Turkey to take concrete steps for the normalisation of bilateral relations with all EU Member States as soon as possible. Turkey currently does not recognise the Republic of Cyprus.

The European Commission and all Member States expect Turkey to ensure full, non-discriminatory implementation of the Additional Protocol to the Ankara Agreement (customs union between Turkey and the EU) to cover the new Member States who joined in 2004, including Cyprus. This includes the removal of all obstacles to the free movement of goods, and restrictions on means of transport.
 
At the December 2006 General Affairs and External Relations Council, EU Foreign Ministers met in Brussels to discuss Turkey's failure to implement the Additional Protocol to the Ankara Agreement. There was a great deal of support for Turkey's EU accession among EU Foreign Ministers but all agreed that the EU must respond. The Council agreed that until Turkey implements the Protocol:

• 8 chapters of negotiations relevant to the Ankara Protocol will not be opened
• No further chapters will be closed
• The Commission will monitor progress through the regular annual reports, particularly in 2007, 2008 and 2009
• The screening process will continue and chapters for which technical preparations have been completed will be opened in accordance with established procedures.

Turkey’s unofficial deadline for implementation of the protocol is autumn 2009, and to this end, EU Foreign Ministers said they looked forward to speedy progress on these issues.
 
After a turbulent year of parliamentary and presidential elections in 2007, the European Commission’s Annual Report for 2007 noted that Turkey urgently needed to renew its reform momentum. It further noted that more work needed to be done implementing legislation across many key areas including anti-corruption and judicial and agricultural reform, and detailed how Turkey needed to consolidate its work on the cultural and fundamental rights and freedoms of all groups in Turkey, including minority groups.

The accession process continued in 2008, but the Turkish Constitutional Court case to close the ruling AK Party brought further distraction from the political, economic and constitutional reforms needed to do for EU membership. Following the Court’s decision not to close the ruling party, Turkey can now focus on these reforms and better communicate them. Turkey’s ‘action plan’ for the adoption of the EU acquis was published on 31 December 2008. Turkey’s membership can bring increased regional stability and provide great benefits to both Turkey and the EU through its active role on many key global issues.

Since the commencement of negotiations in 2005 ten of the thirty three negotiation chapters have opened, one of which has been provisionally closed. It is hoped that further technical progress will be made during the Czech Presidency in 2009 with continued chapter openings.

GEOGRAPHY

Location: South eastern Europe and south western Asia, bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Georgia, and bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, between Greece and Syria
Geographic coordinates: 39 00 N, 35 00 E
Area: total: 780,580 sq km, land: 770,760 sq km, water: 9,820 sq km
Land boundaries: total: 2,627km, border countries: Armenia 268km, Azerbaijan 9km, Bulgaria 240km, Georgia 252km, Greece 206km, Iran 499km, Iraq 331km, Syria 822km
Coastline: 8,333km
Climate: temperate; hot, dry summers with mild, wet winters; harsher in interior
Terrain: mostly mountains; narrow coastal plain; high central plateau (Anatolia)
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m, highest point: Mount Ararat 5,166m
Natural resources: antimony, coal, chromium, mercury, copper, borate, sulphur, iron ore
Land use: arable land: 32%, permanent crops: 4%, permanent pastures: 16%, forests and woodland: 26%, other: 22% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 36,740 sq km
Natural hazards: severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey.

TRADE AND INVESTMENT

Trade and Investment with the UK

Turkey is the 6th largest Economy in Europe and in the top 20 in the world, attracting an estimated Foreign Domestic Investment (FDI) inflow of $20 billion in 2008.

Turkey is a major trading partner of the UK. The volume of UK-Turkey bilateral trade reached $12 billion in 2006 and the UK is Turkey’s 2nd largest export market. British firms cover a wide range of sectors, with over 41 British companies investing in Turkey, such as BP, Shell, Vodafone, Unilever (UK), HSBC, Aviva, Tesco, and Cadbury Schweppes.

Turkey had so far avoided the worst effects of the turmoil in global markets, but risks being affected due to decreasing investor confidence and the slow down in growth.Much of the success of inward investment can be attributed to the AKP government's decision to continue with the IMF reform programme.

Further information about Turkey's economy can be found at UK Trade & Investment Country Profile: Turkey.

POLITICS

Recent Political Developments

Presidential elections were originally arranged for April 2007, but the AK Party candidate Abdullah Gul's presidential candidacy was strongly opposed by the opposition party CH Party, because of Gul’s supposed background in political Islam. The role of President has often been held by the secular establishment, and so the CH Party refused to attend the voting. The failure of Parliament to elect a President precipitated early parliamentary elections on 22 July 2007.

The governing AK Party were re-elected by popular vote, and gained a solid majority of seats. The official results were as follows:

• Justice and Development Party (AKP): 46.5% (341 seats)
• Republican People's Party (CHP): 20.9% (112 seats)
• Nationalist Action Party (MHP): 14.3% (70 seats)
• Independent Candidates: 5.3% (26 seats)

Following the parliamentary elections, AK Party candidate and former Foreign Minister, Abdullah Gul was elected President by the new parliament on 28 August 2007.

In October 2007, the UK-Turkey Strategic Partnership was signed in London by both Prime Ministers. This document outlines the key areas of UK-Turkish co-operation, including regional stability, bilateral trade and Turkey’s EU accession.

In February 2008, the government introduced constitutional changes aimed at lifting the ban on women’s right to wear the headscarf in universities while outlawing more extreme forms of Islamic dress such as the veil. The right of women to wear the headscarf is one of the most debated issues in Turkish politics. It is directly related to the ongoing divide between secularists and Islamists in Turkey. The opposition CH Party challenged these changes in the Constitutional Court, arguing that they threaten the secular nature of the state, and this challenge was upheld by the Court. There remains a de facto ban on the wearing of head scarves in the civil service and universities.

On 14 March 2008, the Chief Prosecutor of the Appeals Court filed an indictment at the Constitutional Court for closure of the AKP. He accused the AKP of violating secular principles and demanded a five-year ban from involvement in politics for 71 prominent AKP figures, including Prime Minister Erdogan and President Gul (the inclusion of Gul was particularly controversial as the President is politically neutral and can only be indicted for treason). Since 1970 24 political parties have been closed including the AKP’s predecessor parties, the Welfare Party (1998) and the Virtue Party (2001), both closed for ‘threatening the secular order’.

On 30 July the Constitutional Court decided to only impose a fine on the AK Party, thus allowing them to remain in government and thus respecting the democratic choice of the majority of Turks who had voted for them in 2007.

UK-Turkey Strategic Partnership

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See Also

Useful Links

• UK Trade & Investment Country Profile: Turkey
• European Commission
• BBC News Country Timeline: Turkey

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