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Last reviewed: 27 July 2009

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POLITICS

The Russian Federation (Russia) is recognised in international law as continuing the legal personality of the Soviet Union (USSR) which was dissolved on 31 December 1991. The Russian Federation is currently divided into some 80 administrative units officially entitled subjects of the Federation. However, a programme of regional mergers is underway.


Yeltsin

Yeltsin launched an agenda for Russia's transition to a democratic, market-based form of government. But the lack of any clear strategy, mounting political opposition, and his own failing health, all made this more difficult. In 1992, Acting Prime Minister Yegor Gaidar began a programme of radical economic reforms, known as ‘shock therapy’, such as measures to cut subsidies and de-regulate prices. These quickly ran into stiff opposition, however, and change was as a result much more gradual and patchy than many had hoped. The exception was the field of privatisation where huge strides forward were taken between 1992 and 1994 to create the bases of a privately owned economic system. Russia was also hamstrung by a constitutional crisis in 1992 and 1993, with Yeltsin contesting power with the Russian Parliament. In September 1993 Yeltsin finally sought to break the impasse, dissolving the Parliament and calling for fresh elections. When Parliamentary supporters took to the streets in violent protest, Yeltsin famously ordered tanks to fire on the White House, which broke the deadlock, but left deep political scars.

Out of that debacle a new Constitution and political institutions emerged. The period between 1993 and 1996 was, however, highlighted by political instability, the war in Chechnya and continuing economic difficulties. By 1996 Yeltsin's popularity ratings were in single figures. He was re-elected that year when the Russian Establishment combined only to prevent a return of the Communists to power. His second term was crippled by severe economic problems, which in August 1998 culminated in the formal devaluation of the rouble and a decision to default on its rouble debts. A rapid turnover of Prime Ministers illustrated Yeltsin's increasingly desperate attempts to find a candidate he thought suitable to replace him. He installed Vladimir Putin as Prime Minister in the summer of 1999 and resigned on 31 December 1999, before the official end of his presidential term.


Putin

Vladimir Putin was formally elected President on 26 March 2000, and served two terms as President before stepping down to become Prime Minister, appointed by his successor Dmitri Medvedev in May 2008.


During his first term as President, Putin moved to re-centralise power, cutting back the positions of regional governments and big business. He also pushed forward an ambitious programme of domestic reforms, particularly in the economic sphere, including banking reforms, tax reform, anti-money- laundering legislation, and administrative and judicial reform (perhaps the  key to genuine change in Russia). Favourable economic conditions,  fuelled by the high oil prices, ensured his continuing personal popularity and gave him the confidence to press ahead.

President Putin won a second term on 14 March 2004 with a landslide majority, in elections described by the OSCE as ‘neither free nor fair.’ The pace of reform slowed notably during Putin’s second term, and progress on some politically and socially contentious issues like economic reform and pensions was limited. Nonetheless, overall the years of Putin’s Presidency were probably the most stable and prosperous period for Russia since the break up of the USSR, at least in part on the back of high commodity prices.
Results from the Duma (Parliamentary) elections on 2 December 2007 gave an overwhelming victory for the incumbent majority party in the Duma, Putin’s United Russia, which won a constitutional majority. Parliamentary observers from the OSCE and Council of Europe described these elections as ‘neither free nor fair’ and drew attention to unbalanced media coverage and the use of state resources to favour United Russia.


Medvedev

Presidential elections took place on 2 March 2008. Deputy Prime Minister Dmitri Medvedev won 70.2% of the vote. He appointed Vladimir Putin, leader of the United Russia party which dominates the State Duma, as Prime Minister. The three other candidates, Communist leader Gennady Zyuganov, Vladimir Zhirinovsky of the LDPR and Andrei Bogdanov, head of the Democratic Party gained 17.8%; 9.4%; and 1.3% of the vote respectively.

Since his election, Medvedev has advocated reforms to the rule of law in Russia, intended to strengthen the independence of the judiciary, and pushed forward anti-corruption legislation. He has proposed a number of reforms to electoral and party law, and in late 2008 oversaw reforms to Russia’s constitution which extend the Presidential term of office to six years, and the State Duma’s term to five years.


Human Rights

While human rights and civil freedoms have improved significantly since the collapse of the USSR, concerns remain about human rights violations in Chechnya and the North Caucasus, torture, constraints on civil society and media freedom, xenophobic or racially motivated attacks and conditions in the armed forces. President Medvedev has underlined his commitment to enhancing the rule of law and the independence of the judiciary, but this has yet to be translated into real progress in these areas.

Further details on the human rights situation in Russia can be found on page 169 of the 2008 FCO Annual Report on Human Rights:

Human Rights Report 2008

Chechnya the North Caucasus

The Russian Government intervened in Chechnya in 1999 after a short, chaotic period of virtual Chechen self-rule after Russian troops withdrew in 1996. Much of the republic's urban and rural infrastructure was destroyed in fighting between separatist rebels and federal troops allied with local forces loyal to Moscow, especially through the indiscriminate use of heavy artillery and aerial bombardment by the Russian military. In April 2009, Russia announced the end of its Counter-Terrorism Operation in Chechnya. However, continued instability has resulted in local counter-terrorism regimes being re-introduced in several regions of the republic.   There are ongoing reports of explosions and shootings carried out by rebel groups, including attacks on federal and local law-enforcement bodies.

Extremists associated with Chechen rebel groups have been linked to several high-profile terrorist attacks in the region, including the Beslan school siege in September 2004, and in Moscow. In the past two years there has been a  sharp decrease in the numbers of terrorist incidents outside of the North Caucasus. Russian forces claim to have eliminated many rebel groups and fighters, including Shamil Basayev who had claimed responsibility for a large number of terrorist attacks including Beslan.

A Moscow-initiated political process, launched in March 2003 promising autonomy, reconstruction and stabilisation, has made some progress, especially with high-profile rebuilding work. However, social and economic conditions remain poor. There have been widespread, credible allegations of extra-judicial killings, forced disappearances, torture, rape and arbitrary detention by all sides.

The political process was initiated with a constitutional referendum in March 2003, which received a substantial ‘yes’ vote. However, serious international concerns were raised over election conditions for the referendum. This was followed by presidential elections in October 2003, which elected the incumbent Head of the Administration, Akhmad Kadyrov, as President of Chechnya. Both the UK and the EU raised serious concerns over the election conditions and the plurality of the political process. The assassination of President Kadyrov in May 2004 brought renewed instability. Ramzan Kadyrov, Akhmad’s son, became President of Chechnya in February 2007.

Instability within Chechnya has affected neighbouring republics, particularly Ingushetia and Dagestan, where the frequency of violent incidents has increased in recent years. The whole North Caucasus remains fragile and vulnerable to human rights violations. Difficult socio-economic conditions across much of the region, together with widespread corruption, ethnic and clan tensions and religious divisions, continue to fuel this instability.

Because of the security situation and the threat from terrorism and kidnappings, the FCO advises against travel to certain regions of the North Caucasus. See the FCO Travel Advice for more information.

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