Pistols at dawn

Even after Trafalgar (1805), Britain remained threatened by invasion. Napoleon built new ships and a base at Antwerp, which the Walcheren expedition (1809) aimed to destroy. It was a disaster: 4,000 men were bogged down, decimated by disease and forced to withdraw.

Foreign Secretary George Canning (1770–1827) blamed War Secretary Castlereagh and sought his dismissal. Castlereagh challenged him to a duel. Opinions differed as to the rights and wrongs. They met on Putney Heath on 21 September 1809 and Canning was wounded in the thigh.

Duelling, though widely condemned, was almost obligatory for officers and occasionally for politicians – an effective if risky way of dealing with accusations of dishonourable conduct. Proving your courage was the aim, not killing your opponent, and seconds tried to prevent a lethal outcome. Both Canning and Castlereagh had to resign. In later years they fought a political duel, each embodying a different approach to foreign relations.